Eurasian clinical guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of cardiorenal syndrome (2026)

Cardiorenal syndrome (CRS) covers a spectrum of disorders affecting both the heart and kidneys, in which acute or chronic dysfunction in one organ can cause acute or chronic dysfunction in another organ. The concept of CRS has streamlined the numerous relationships between acute and chronic heart and kidney diseases and united cardiologists and nephrologists in the struggle for the quality and life expectancy of patients. Identification of kidney involvement in the pathological process at the early stages of the cardiovascular continuum, starting with risk factors, will allow for preventive measures that will help improve both cardiovascular and renal outcomes. The above has led to the preparation of these recommendations. The recommendations include modern approaches to the diagnosis, treatment and prevention of all 5 types of CRS in various cardiovascular diseases. The recommendations briefly present the main pathophysiological mechanisms of cattle development and modern classifications. The extremely relevant and, in our opinion, insufficiently covered issues of diagnosis and treatment of contrast-induced nephropathy, renal replacement therapy and its place in the treatment of cattle are highlighted in detail, which, in our opinion, will make the recommendations interesting and useful for a wide range of specialist doctors. The recommendations are intended not only for cardiologists, nephrologists, cardiac and endovascular surgeons, anesthesiologists, intensive care physicians and perfusiologists, but also for general practitioners and internists who are on the first line of the fight against CRS. It is noteworthy that when preparing the recommendations, we used our own experience of the State Institution «Republican Scientific and Practical Center of Cardiology» and the State Institution «Minsk Scientific and Practical Center for Transplant Surgery and Hematology» (Minsk, Republic of Belarus).

1. Dzau V, Braunwald E. Resolved and unresolved issues in the prevention and treatment of coronary artery disease: a workshop consensus statement. Am Heart J. 1991 Apr;121(4 Pt 1):1244-63. https://doi.org/10.1016/0002-8703(91)90694-d

2. Dzau V. The cardiovascular continuum and renin-angiotensinaldosterone system blockade. J Hypertens Suppl. 2005 Apr;23(1):S9-17. PMID: 15821452.

3. LEDOUX P. Les cardio-rénaux [Cardiorenal syndrome]. Avenir Med. 1951 Oct;48(8):149-53. Undetermined Language. PMID: 14878683.

4. Silverberg D. Outcomes of anaemia management in renal insufficiency and cardiac disease. Nephrol Dial Transplant. 2003 Jun;18 Suppl 2:ii7-12. PMID: 12819294.

5. Ronco C. Cardiorenal and renocardiac syndromes: clinical disorders in search of a systematic definition. Int J Artif Organs. 2008 Jan;31(1):1-2. https://doi.org/10.1177/039139880803100101

6. Ronco C, Haapio M, House AA, Anavekar N, Bellomo R. Cardiorenal syndrome. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2008 Nov 4;52(19):1527-39. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2008.07.051

7. Nadim MK, Forni LG, Bihorac A, Hobson C, Koyner JL, Shaw A, Arnaoutakis GJ, Ding X, Engelman DT, Gasparovic H, Gasparovic V, Herzog CA, Kashani K, Katz N, Liu KD, Mehta RL, Ostermann M, Pannu N, Pickkers P, Price S, Ricci Z, Rich JB, Sajja LR, Weaver FA, Zarbock A, Ronco C, Kellum JA. Cardiac and Vascular SurgeryAssociated Acute Kidney Injury: The 20th International Consensus Conference of the ADQI (Acute Disease Quality Initiative) Group. J Am Heart Assoc. 2018 Jun 1;7(11):e008834. PMID: 29858368; PMCID: PMC6015369. https://doi.org/10.1161/JAHA.118.008834

8. Birnie K, Verheyden V, Pagano D, Bhabra M, Tilling K, Sterne JA, Murphy GJ; UK AKI in Cardiac Surgery Collaborators. Predictive models for kidney disease: improving global outcomes (KDIGO) defined acute kidney injury in UK cardiac surgery. Crit Care. 2014 Nov 20;18(6):606. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13054-014-0606-x

9. Chertow GM, Lazarus JM, Christiansen CL, Cook EF, Hammermeister KE, Grover F, Daley J. Preoperative renal risk stratification. Circulation. 1997 Feb 18;95(4):878-84. https://doi.org/10.1161/01.cir.95.4.878

10. Palomba H, de Castro I, Neto ALC, Lage S, Yu L. Acute kidney injury prediction following elective cardiac surgery: AKICS Score. Kidney International. 2007;72(5):624-631. https://doi.org/10.1038/sj.ki.5002419

11. Jorge-Monjas P, Bustamante-Munguira J, Lorenzo M, HerediaRodríguez M, Fierro I, Gómez-Sánchez E, Hernandez A, Álvarez FJ, Bermejo-Martin JF, Gómez-Pesquera E, Gómez-Herreras JI, Tamayo E. Predicting cardiac surgery-associated acute kidney injury: The CRATE score. J Crit Care. 2016 Feb;31(1):130-8. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jcrc.2015.11.004

12. Pannu N, Graham M, Klarenbach S, et al. A new model to predict acute kidney injury requiring renal replacement therapy after cardiac surgery. CMAJ 2016;188:1076-1083. https://doi.org/10.1503/cmaj.151447

13. Ranucci M, Castelvecchio S, Menicanti L, Frigiola A, Pelissero G. Risk of assessing mortality risk in elective cardiac operations: age, creatinine, ejection fraction, and the law of parsimony. Circulation. 2009 Jun 23;119(24):3053-61. https://doi.org/10.1161/circulationaha.108.842393

14. Thakar CV, Arrigain S, Worley S, Yared JP, Paganini EP. A clinical score to predict acute renal failure after cardiac surgery. J Am Soc Nephrol. 2005 Jan;16(1):162-8. https://doi.org/10.1681/asn.2004040331

15. Reznik E.V., Nikitin I.G. Cardiorenal syndrome in patients with chronic heart failure as a stage of the cardiorenal continuum (part i): definition, classification, pathogenesis, diagnosis, epidemiology. The Russian Archives of Internal Medicine. 2019;9(1):5-22. (In Russ.) https://doi.org/10.20514/2226-6704-2019-9-1-5-22

16. Mullens W, Damman K, Testani JM, Martens P, Mueller C, Lassus J, Tang WHW, Skouri H, Verbrugge FH, Orso F, Hill L, Ural D, Lainscak M, Rossignol P, Metra M, Mebazaa A, Seferovic P, Ruschitzka F, Coats A. Evaluation of kidney function throughout the heart failure trajectory – a position statement from the Heart Failure Association of the European Society of Cardiology. Eur J Heart Fail. 2020 Apr;22(4):584-603. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejhf.1697

17. Trushina OI. Cardiovascular-kidney-metabolic syndrome: the interdisciplinary approach. A review. Terapevticheskii arkhiv 2025;97(9):789-792. (In Russ.) https://doi.org/10.26442/00403660.2025.09.203346

18. Okisheva EA, Trushina OI. Biomarkers in acute coronary syndromes: from the origins to the present. Terapevticheskii arkhiv 2024;96(9):914-918. (In Russ.) https://doi.org/10.26442/00403660.2024.09.202854

19. Srisawat N, Kellum JA. The Role of Biomarkers in Acute Kidney Injury. Crit Care Clin. 2020 Jan;36(1):125-140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ccc.2019.08.010

20. Stevens, Jacob S., and Jai Radhakrishnan. "Kidney replacement therapy for patients requiring cardiopulmonary bypass support during cardiac surgery." Clinical Journal of the American Society of Nephrology. 2021 Dec;16(12):1898-1900. https://doi.org/10.2215/cjn.07150521

21. Schelkanovtseva ES, Mironova OIu, Fomin VV. Biomarkers of acute kidney disease. Potential application in practice. Consilium Medicum. 2021; 23(1):15–19. (In Russ.) https://doi.org/10.26442/20751753.2021.1.200729

22. Chazova I.E., Chikhladze N.M., Blinova N.V., Aksenova A.V., Alekseeva T.A., Ambatiello L.G., Balanova Yu.A., Bragina A.E., Danilov N.M., Drapkina O.M., Drozdova L.Yu., Ezhov M.V., Elfimova E.M., Zhernakova Yu.V., Zhirov I.V., Kislyak O.A., Litvin A.Yu., Nebieridze D.V., Ostroumova O.D., Podzolkov V.I., Sergienko I.V., Sivakova O.A., Starodubova A.V., Stryuk R.I., Tereshchenko S.N., Trushina O.Yu., Shchelkova G.V. Clinical guidelines of the Russian Medical Society on arterial Hypertension (RSH) and the Eurasian association of Cardiologists (EaC) for the diagnosis and treatment of arterial hypertension (2024). Systemic Hypertension. 2024;21(4):5- 110. (In Russ.) https://doi.org/10.38109/2075-082X-2024-4-5-109

23. Chazova I.E., Solntseva T.D., Sivakova O.A., Ageev F.T., Fofanova T.V., Bragina A.E., Trushina O.I. Russian Medical Society for Arterial Hypertension expert consensus. Arterial hypertension and adherence to antihypertensive therapy. Systemic Hypertension. 2024;21(2):7-17. (In Russ.) https://doi.org/10.38109/2075-082X-2024-2-5-15

24. McDonagh Т.А., Metra Ь., Adamo M., Gardner R.S. et al. ESC Scientific Document Group, 2021 ESC Guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic heart failure: Developed by the Task Force for the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic heart failure of the European Society of Cardiology (ESC) With the special contribution of the Heart Failure Association (HFA) of the ESC, European Heart Journal, Volume 42, Issue 36, 21 September 2021, Pages 3599–3726, https://doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehab368

25. Maisel AS, Wettersten N, van Veldhuisen DJ, Mueller C, Filippatos G, Nowak R, Hogan C, Kontos MC, Cannon CM, Müller GA, Birkhahn R, Clopton P, Taub P, Vilke GM, McDonald K, Mahon N, Nuñez J, Briguori C, Passino C, Murray PT. Neutrophil Gelatinase-Associated Lipocalin for Acute Kidney Injury During Acute Heart Failure Hospitalizations: The AKINESIS Study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2016 Sep 27;68(13):1420-1431. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2016.06.055

26. Williams B, Mancia G, Spiering W, Agabiti Rosei E, Azizi M, Burnier M, Clement DL, Coca A, de Simone G, Dominiczak A, Kahan T, Mahfoud F, Redon J, Ruilope L, Zanchetti A, Kerins M, Kjeldsen SE, Kreutz R, Laurent S, Lip GYH, McManus R, Narkiewicz K, Ruschitzka F, Schmieder RE, Shlyakhto E, Tsioufis C, Aboyans V, Desormais I; ESC Scientific Document Group. 2018 ESC/ESH Guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension. Eur Heart J. 2018 Sep 1;39(33):3021-3104. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehy339. Erratum in: Eur Heart J. 2019 Feb 1;40(5):475. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehy686

27. Clinical recommendations. Chronic kidney disease (CKD). Developer of the clinical recommendation: Association of Nephrologists. Nephrology (Saint-Petersburg). 2021;25(5):10-82. (In Russ.)

28. CONSENSUS Trial Study Group. Effects of enalapril on mortality in severe congestive heart failure. Results of the Cooperative North Scandinavian Enalapril Survival Study (CONSENSUS). N Engl J Med. 1987 Jun 4;316(23):1429-1435. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJM198706043162301

29. SOLVD Investigators; Yusuf S, Pitt B, Davis CE, Hood WB, Cohn JN. Effect of enalapril on survival in patients with reduced left ventricular ejection fractions and congestive heart failure. N Engl J Med. 1991 Aug 1;325(5):293-302. https://doi.org/10.1056/nejm199108013250501

30. McMurray JJ, Packer M, Desai AS, Gong J, Lefkowitz MP, Rizkala AR, Rouleau JL, Shi VC, Solomon SD, Swedberg K, Zile MR; PARADIGM-HF Investigators and Committees. Angiotensinneprilysin inhibition versus enalapril in heart failure. N Engl J Med. 2014 Sep 11;371(11):993-1004. https://doi.org/10.1056/nejmoa1409077

31. Solomon SD, Zile M, Pieske B, Voors A, Shah A, Kraigher-Krainer E, Shi V, Bransford T, Takeuchi M, Gong J, Lefkowitz M, Packer M, McMurray JJ; Prospective comparison of ARNI with ARB on Management Of heart failUre with preserved ejectioN fracTion (PARAMOUNT) Investigators. The angiotensin receptor neprilysin inhibitor LCZ696 in heart failure with preserved ejection fraction: a phase 2 double-blind randomised controlled trial. Lancet. 2012 Oct 20;380(9851):1387-95. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(12)61227-6

32. Pitt B, Zannad F, Remme WJ, Cody R, Castaigne A, Perez A, Palensky J, Wittes J. The effect of spironolactone on morbidity and mortality in patients with severe heart failure. Randomized Aldactone Evaluation Study Investigators. N Engl J Med. 1999 Sep 2;341(10):709-17. https://doi.org/10.1056/nejm199909023411001

33. Rosenzweig JL, Bakris GL, Berglund LF, et al. Primary prevention of ASCVD and T2DM in patients at metabolic risk: an endocrine society clinical practice guideline. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2019;104:3939- 3985. https://doi.org/10.1210/jc.2019-01338

34. Chazova I.E., Shestakova M.V., Zhernakova Yu.V., et al. Eurasian association of cardiology (eac) guidelines for the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular diseases in patients with diabetes and prediabetes (2021). Eurasian heart journal. 2021;(2):6-61. (In Russ.) https://doi.org/10.38109/2225-1685-2021-2-6-61

35. Chen HH, Anstrom KJ, Givertz MM, et al. Low-Dose Dopamine or Low-Dose Nesiritide in Acute Heart Failure With Renal Dysfunction: The ROSE Acute Heart Failure Randomized Trial. JAMA. 2013;310(23):2533-2543. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2013.282190

36. Velazquez EJ, Morrow DA, DeVore AD, Duffy CI, Ambrosy AP, McCague K, Rocha R, Braunwald E; PIONEER-HF Investigators. Angiotensin-Neprilysin Inhibition in Acute Decompensated Heart Failure. N Engl J Med. 2019 Feb 7;380(6):539-548. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1812851

37. Bradley A. Bart, M.D., Steven R. Goldsmith, M.D., Kerry L. Lee, Ph.D., Michael M. Givertz, M.D., Christopher M. O'Connor, M.D., David A. Bull, M.D., Margaret M. Redfield, M.D., Anita Deswal, M.D., M.P.H., Jean L. Rouleau, M.D., Martin M. LeWinter, M.D., Elizabeth O. Ofili, M.D., M.P.H., Lynne W. Stevenson, M.D., et al., for the Heart Failure Clinical Research Network Ultrafiltration in Decompensated Heart Failure with Cardiorenal Syndrome/ December 13, 2012 N Engl J Med 2012;367:2296-2304. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1210357

38. Tavazzi L, Maggioni AP, Marchioli R, Barlera S, Franzosi MG, Latini R, Lucci D, Nicolosi GL, Porcu M, Tognoni G; Gissi-HF Investigators. Effect of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in patients with chronic heart failure (the GISSI-HF trial): a randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Lancet. 2008 Oct 4;372(9645):1223-30. Epub 2008 Aug 29. PMID: 18757090. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(08)61239-8

39. Chazova I.E., Zhernakova Yu.V., Blinova N.V., Markova T.N., Mazurina N.V., Zhirov I.V., Uskach T.M., Safiullina A.A., Mironova O.I., Elfimova E.M., Litvin A.Yu., Zheleznova E.A., Yuricheva Yu.A., Azizov V.A., Grigorenko E.A., Rahimov Z.Ya., Kasymova S.D., Mustafaev I.I., Narzullaeva A.R., Polupanov A.G., Sarybaev A.Sh., Srozhidinova N.Z. Eurasian guidelines for the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular diseases in patients with obesity (2022). Eurasian heart journal. 2022;(3):6-56. (In Russ.) https://doi.org/10.38109/2225-1685-2022-3-6-56

40. Mozaffarian D, Fahimi S, Singh GM, Micha R, Khatibzadeh S, Engell RE, et al. Global sodium consumption and death from cardiovascular causes. N Engl J Med. 2014;371(7):624–34. https://doi.org/10.1056/nejmoa1304127

41. Sarnak MJ, Amann K, Bangalore S, Cavalcante JL, Charytan DM, Craig JC, et al. Chronic Kidney Disease and Coronary Artery Disease: JACC State-of-the-Art Review. J Am Coll Cardiol.2019;74(14):1823–38. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2019.08.1017

42. Perkovic V, Agarwal R, Fioretto P, Hemmelgarn BR, Levin A, Thomas MC, et al. Management of patients with diabetes and CKD: conclusions from a “Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes” (KDIGO) Controversies Conference. Kidney Int. 2016;90(6):1175- 1183. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.kint.2016.09.010

43. Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) CKD Work Group. KDIGO 2024 Clinical Practice Guideline for the Evaluation and Management of Chronic Kidney Disease. Kidney Int. 2024;105(4S):S117-S314. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.kint.2023.10.018

44. Gæde P, Oellgaard J, Carstensen B, Rossing P, Lund-Andersen H, Parving HH, et al. Years of life gained by multifactorial intervention in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and microalbuminuria: 21 years follow-up on the Steno-2 randomised trial. Diabetologia [Internet]. 2016;59(11):2298–2307. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00125-016-4065-6

45. Parving H-H, Lehnert H, Bröchner-Mortensen J, Gomis R, Andersen S, Arner P. The Effect of Irbesartan on the Development of Diabetic Nephropathy in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes. N Engl J Med [Internet]. 2001 Sep 20;345(12):870–8. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa011489

46. Makino H, Haneda M, Babazono T, Moriya T, Ito S, Iwamoto Y, Kawamori R, Takeuchi M, Katayama S; INNOVATION Study Group. Prevention of transition from incipient to overt nephropathy with telmisartan in patients with type 2 diabetes. Diabetes Care. 2007 Jun;30(6):1577-1578. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc06-1998

47. Brenner BM, Cooper ME, de Zeeuw D, Keane WF, Mitch WE, Parving H-H, et al. Effects of Losartan on Renal and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes and Nephropathy. N Engl J Med [Internet]. 2001 Sep 20;345(12):861–9. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa011161

48. Strippoli GF, Bonifati C, Craig M, Navaneethan SD, Craig JC. Angiotensin converting enzyme inhibitors and angiotensin II receptor antagonists for preventing the progression of diabetic kidney disease. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2006 Oct 18;2006(4):CD006257. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.cd006257

49. Bakris GL, Weir MR. Angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitorassociated elevations in serum creatinine: is this a cause for concern? Arch Intern Med. 2000 Mar 13;160(5):685-93. https://doi.org/10.1001/archinte.160.5.685

50. Navaneethan SD, Nigwekar SU, Sehgal AR, Strippoli GFM. Aldosterone antagonists for preventing the progression of chronic kidney disease: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol. 2009;4(3):542–51. https://doi.org/10.2215/cjn.04750908

51. Bakris GL, Agarwal R, Anker SD, Pitt B, Ruilope LM, Nowack C, et al. Design and Baseline Characteristics of the Finerenone in Reducing Kidney Failure and Disease Progression in Diabetic Kidney Disease Trial. Am J Nephrol. 2019;50(5):333–44. https://doi.org/10.1159/000503713

52. Wong MG, Perkovic V, Chalmers J, Woodward M, Li Q, Cooper ME, et al. Long-term benefits of intensive glucose Control for preventing end-stage kidney disease: ADVANCE-ON. Diabetes Care.2016;39(5):694–700. https://doi.org/10.2337/dc15-2322

53. Roussel R, Lorraine J, Rodriguez A, Salaun-Martin C. Overview of Data Concerning the Safe Use of Antihyperglycemic Medications in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and Chronic Kidney Disease. Adv Ther.2015;32(11):1029-64. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12325-015-0261-x

54. Turner R. Effect of intensive blood-glucose control with metformin on complications in overweight patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 34). Lancet. 1998;352(9131):854–65. PMID: 9742977.

55. Crowley MJ, Diamantidis CJ, McDuffie JR, Cameron CB, Stanifer JW, Mock CK, et al. Clinical outcomes of metformin use in populations with chronic kidney disease, congestive heart failure, or chronic liver disease: A systematic review. Ann Intern Med. 2017;166(3):191–200. https://doi.org/10.7326/m16-1901

56. Jardine MJ, Mahaffey KW, Neal B, Agarwal R, Bakris GL, Brenner BM, et al. The canagliflozin and renal endpoints in diabetes with established nephropathy clinical evaluation (CREDENCE) study rationale, design, and baseline characteristics. Am J Nephrol. 2018;46(6):462–72. https://doi.org/10.1159/000484633

57. Emdin CA, Rahimi K, Neal B, Callender T, Perkovic V, Patel A. Blood pressure lowering in type 2 diabetes : A systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA – J Am Med Assoc. 2015;313(6):603-15. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2014.18574

58. Zoungas S, Chalmers J, Neal B, Billot L, Li Q, Biostat M, et al. Follow-up of blood-pressure lowering and glucose control in type 2 diabetes. N Engl J Med. 2014;371(15):1392–406. https://doi.org/10.1056/nejmoa1407963

59. Trushina OY, Okisheva EА, Solonina AD, Sorokina SA, Panferov AS, Elizarov MP, Lychagin AV, Fomin VV. Analysis of renal function in patients after scheduled orthopedic intervention on lower limb joints in real clinical practice. Consilium Medicum 2025;27(10):609-613. (In Russ.) https://doi.org/10.26442/20751753.2025.10.203438

60. Weber MA, Bakris GL, Jamerson K, Weir M, Kjeldsen SE, Devereux RB, et al. Cardiovascular Events During Differing Hypertension Therapies in Patients With Diabetes. JAC [Internet]. 2010;56(1):77- 85. Available from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2010.02.046

61. Fitchett D, Bluhmki E, Ph D, Hantel S, Ph D, Mattheus M, et al. Empagliflozin, Cardiovascular Outcomes, and Mortality in Type 2 Diabetes. 2015;2117–28. https://doi.org/10.1056/nejmoa1504720

62. W. MK, Bruce N, Vlado P, Dick de Z, Greg F, Ngozi E, et al. Canagliflozin for Primary and Secondary Prevention of Cardiovascular Events. Circulation [Internet]. 2018 Jan 23;137(4):323-34. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.117.032038

63. Wiviott SD, Raz I, Bonaca MP, Mosenzon O, Kato ET, Cahn A, et al. Dapagliflozin and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Type 2 Diabetes. N Engl J Med [Internet]. 2018 Nov 10;380(4):347-57. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1812389

64. Marso SP, Daniels GH, Brown-Frandsen K, Kristensen P, Mann JFE, Nauck MA, et al. Liraglutide and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Type 2 Diabetes. N Engl J Med [Internet]. 2016 Jun 13;375(4):311-22. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1603827

65. Marso SP, Bain SC, Consoli A, Eliaschewitz FG, Jódar E, Leiter LA, et al. Semaglutide and Cardiovascular Outcomes in Patients with Type 2 Diabetes. N Engl J Med [Internet]. 2016 Sep15;375(19):1834–44. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1607141

66. Mironova OI, Isaev GO, Berdysheva MV, Shakhnovich RM, Fomin VV. Modern methods of assessment of physiological significance of coronary lesions: A review. Terapevticheskii arkhiv 2023;95(4):341- 346. (In Russ.) https://doi.org/10.26442/00403660.2023.04.202169

67. Okisheva EA, Mironova OI, Berdysheva MV, Pyatigorets ES, Krivova NP, Kurnosova AA, Elizarov MP, Smetanin SM, Lychagin AV, Fomin VV. Relationship between the pain severity, use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs and blood pressure in elective large joint arthroplasty of the lower extremities. Terapevticheskii arkhiv 2023;95(9):751-756. (In Russ.) https://doi.org/10.26442/00403660.2023.09.202373

68. Dmitrieva OA, Mironova OY, Sivakova OA, Denisova AR, Solnceva TD, Fomin VV. The periprocedural myocardial infarction and probability of the developing of the contrast-induced acute kidneys injury in clinical practice. Case report. Terapevticheskii arkhiv 2021;93(4):482-486. (In Russ.) https://doi.org/10.26442/00403660.2021.04.200686

69. Husain-Syed F., Gröne H.J., Assmus B. et al. Congestive nephropathy: a neglected entity? Proposal for diagnostic criteria and future perspectives. ESC Heart Fail 2021;8:183-203. https://doi.org/10.1002/ehf2.13118

70. Tabucanon T, Tang WH. Right heart failure and cardiorenal syndrome. Cardiol Clin 2020;38:185-202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ccl.2020.01.004

71. Mullens W., Damman K., HarjolaV-P., Mebazaa A., Brunner-La Rocca H-P., Martens, Testani J.M., Wilson Tang The use of diuretics in heart failure with congestion – a position statement from the Heart Failure Association of the European Society of Cardiology / European J of Heart Fail, Volume: 21, Issue: 2, Pages: 137-155. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejhf.1369

72. McDonagh TA, Metra M, Adamo M, Gardner RS, Baumbach A, Böhm M, Burri H, Butler J, Čelutkienė J, Chioncel O, Cleland JGF, Coats AJS, Crespo-Leiro MG, Farmakis D, Gilard M, Heymans S, Hoes AW, Jaarsma T, Jankowska EA, Lainscak M, Lam CSP, Lyon AR, McMurray JJV, Mebazaa A, Mindham R, Muneretto C, Francesco Piepoli M, Price S, Rosano GMC, Ruschitzka F, Kathrine Skibelund A; ESC Scientific Document Group. 2021 ESC Guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of acute and chronic heart failure. Eur Heart J. 2021 Sep 21;42(36):3599-3726. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehab368 . Erratum in: Eur Heart J. 2021 Dec 21;42(48):4901. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehab368

73. Greger R, Schlatter E. Cellular mechanism of the action of loop diuretics on the thick ascending limb of Henle's loop. Klin Wochenschr. 1983 Oct 17;61(20):1019-27. https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01537500

74. Ostermann M, Bellomo R, Burdmann EA, DoiK, Endre ZH, Goldstein SL, Kane-Gill SL, Liu KD, Prowle JR, Shaw AD, Srisawat N, Cheung M, Jadoul M, Winkelmayer WC, Kellum JA; Conference Participants. Controversies in acute kidney injury: conclusions from a Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) Conference. Kidney Int. 2020 Aug;98(2):294-309. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.kint.2020.04.020

75. Wilcox CS, Testani JM, Pitt B. Pathophysiology of Diuretic Resistance and Its Implications for the Management of Chronic Heart Failure. Hypertension. 2020 Oct;76(4):1045-1054. https://doi.org/10.1161/HYPERTENSIONAHA.120.15205

76. erbrugge FH, Martens P, Ameloot K, Haemels V, Penders J, Dupont M, Tang WHW, Droogné W, Mullens W. Acetazolamide to increase natriuresis in congestive heart failure at high risk for diuretic resistance. Eur J Heart Fail. 2019 Nov;21(11):1415-1422. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejhf.1478

77. Verbrugge FH, Grieten L, Mullens W. Management of the cardiorenal syndrome in decompensated heart failure. Cardiorenal Med. 2014 Dec;4(3-4):176-88. https://doi.org/10.1159/000366168

78. Heidenreich PA, Bozkurt B, Aguilar D, Allen LA, Byun JJ, Colvin MM, Deswal A, Drazner MH, Dunlay SM, Evers LR, Fang JC, Fedson SE, Fonarow GC, Hayek SS, Hernandez AF, Khazanie P, Kittleson MM, Lee CS, Link MS, Milano CA, Nnacheta LC, Sandhu AT, Stevenson LW, Vardeny O, Vest AR, Yancy CW; ACC/AHA Joint Committee Members. 2022 AHA/ACC/HFSA Guideline for the Management of Heart Failure: A Report of the American College of Cardiology/ American Heart Association Joint Committee on Clinical Practice Guidelines. Circulation. 2022 May 3;145(18):e895-e1032. https://doi.org/10.1161/cir.0000000000001063. Epub 2022 Apr 1. Erratum in: Circulation. 2022 May 3;145(18):e1033. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIR.0000000000001073. Erratum in: Circulation. 2022 Sep 27;146(13):e185. doi: 10.1161/CIR.0000000000001097 . Erratum in: Circulation. 2023 Apr 4;147(14):e674. PMID: 35363499. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIR.0000000000001142

79. Thind GS, Loehrke M, Wilt JL. Acute cardiorenal syndrome: Mechanisms and clinical implications. Cleve Clin J Med. 2018 Mar;85(3):231-239. PMID: 29522391. https://doi.org/10.3949/ccjm.85a.17019

80. Rangaswami J, Bhalla V, Blair JEA, Chang TI, Costa S, Lentine KL, Lerma EV, Mezue K, Molitch M, Mullens W, Ronco C, Tang WHW, McCullough PA; American Heart Association Council on the Kidney in Cardiovascular Disease and Council on Clinical Cardiology. Cardiorenal Syndrome: Classification, Pathophysiology, Diagnosis, and Treatment Strategies: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association. Circulation. 2019 Apr 16;139(16):e840-e878. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIR.0000000000000664

81. Ter Maaten JM, Valente MA, Damman K, Hillege HL, Navis G, Voors AA. Diuretic response in acute heart failure-pathophysiology, evaluation, and therapy.Nat Rev Cardiol. 2015;12:184–192. https://oi.org/10.1038/nrcardio.2014.215

82. Testani JM, Hanberg JS, Cheng S, Rao V, Onyebeke C, Laur O, Kula A, Chen M, Wilson FP, Darlington A, et al. Rapid and highly accurate prediction of poor loop diuretic natriuretic response in patients with heart failure.Circ Heart Fail. 2016;9:e002370. https://doi.org/10.1161/CIRCHEARTFAILURE.115.002370

83. Shah N., Madanieh R., Alkan M., Dogar M.U., Kosmas C.E., Vittorio T.J. A perspective on diuretic resistance in chronic congestive heart failure. Ther Adv Cardiovasc Dis. 2017;11(10):271-278. https://doi.org/10.1177/1753944717718717

84. Felker GM, Ellison DH, Mullens W, Cox ZL, Testani JM. Diuretic Therapy for Patients with Heart Failure. Journal of the American College of Cardiology. 2020;75(10):1178–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2019.12.059

85. Cox ZL, Rao VS, Testani JM. Classic and Novel Mechanisms of Diuretic Resistance in Cardiorenal Syndrome. Kidney360. 2022 Mar 1;3(5):954-967. https://doi.org/10.34067/KID.0006372021

86. Ahmad T, Jackson K, Rao VS, Tang WH, Brisco-Bacik MA, Chen HH, FelkerGM, Hernandez AF, O’Connor CM, Sabbisetti VS, Bonventre JV, Wilson FP,Coca SG, Testani JM. Worsening renal function in acute heart failure patients undergoing aggressive diuresis is not associated with tubular injury. Circulation 2018;137:2016-2028. https://doi.org/10.1161/circulationaha.117.030112

87. Valente MA, Voors AA, Damman K, van Veldhuisen DJ, Massie BM, O’ConnorCM, Metra M, Ponikowski P, Teerlink JR, Cotter G, Davison B, Cleland JG,Givertz MM, Bloomfield DM, Fiuzat M, Dittrich HC, Hillege HL. Diureticresponse in acute heart failure: clinical characteristics and prognostic signifi-cance.Eur Heart J2014;35:1284-1293. https://doi.org/10.1093/eurheartj/ehu065

88. Ellison DH, Felker GM. Diuretic Treatment in Heart Failure. N Engl J Med. 2017 Nov 16;377(20):1964-1975. doi: 10.1056/ NEJMra1703100. Erratum in: N Engl J Med. 2018 Feb 1;378(5):492. PMID: 29141174; PMCID: PMC5811193. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMx180001

89. Salvador DR, Rey NR, Ramos GC, Punzalan FE. Continuous infusion versus bolus injection of loop diuretics in congestive heart failure. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2004;(1):CD003178. https://doi.org/10.1002/14651858.CD003178.pub2

90. Oh SW, Han SY. Loop Diuretics in Clinical Practice. Electrolyte Blood Press. 2015 Jun;13(1):17-21. Epub 2015 Jun 30. https://doi.org/10.5049/EBP.2015.13.1.17

91. Felker GM, Lee KL, Bull DA, Redfield M.M. et al. Diuretic strategies in patients with acute decompensated heart failure. N Engl J Med. 2011 Mar 3;364(9):797-805. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1005419

92. De Bruyne LK. Mechanisms and management of diuretic resistance in congestive heart failure. Postgrad Med J. 2003 May;79(931):268- 71. PMID: 12782772; PMCID: PMC1742703. https://doi.org/10.1136/pmj.79.931.268

93. Greene SJ, Mentz RJ. Potential advantages of torsemide in patients with heart failure: more than just a 'water pill'? Eur J Heart Fail. 2018 Mar;20(3):471-473. Epub 2017 Oct 29. https://doi.org/10.1002/ejhf.1024

94. Mirzai S, Kanaan CN, Berglund F, Mountis M, Wassif H. How do we maximize diuresis in acute decompensated heart failure? Cleve Clin J Med. 2022 Oct 3;89(10):561-565. https://doi.org/10.3949/ccjm.89a.22016

95. Jardim SI, Ramos Dos Santos L, Araújo I, Marques F, Branco P, Gaspar A, Fonseca C. A 2018 overview of diuretic resistance in heart failure. Rev Port Cardiol (Engl Ed). 2018 Nov;37(11):935-945. [English, Portuguese] https://doi.org/10.1016/j.repc.2018.03.014

96. Konstam MA, Gheorghiade M, Burnett JC Jr, Grinfeld L. et al. Efficacy of Vasopressin Antagonism in Heart Failure Outcome Study With Tolvaptan (EVEREST) Investigators. Effects of oral tolvaptan in patients hospitalized for worsening heart failure: the EVEREST Outcome Trial. JAMA. 2007 Mar 28;297(12):1319-31. Epub 2007 Mar 25. PMID: 17384437. https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.297.12.1319

97. Felker GM, Mentz RJ, Cole RT, Adams KF.Efficacy and Safety of Tolvaptan in Patients Hospitalized With Acute Heart Failure. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2017 Mar 21;69(11):1399-1406. Epub 2016 Sep 18. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2016.09.004

98. Butler J., Anstrom K.J., Felker G.M., Givertz M.M. et al. Efficacy and safety of spironolactone in acute heart failure: the ATHENA-HF randomized clinical trial. JAMA Cardiol. 2017;2(9):950–958. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamacardio.2017.2198

99. Mullens W., Dauw J., Martens P., Verbrugge F.H. et al. Acetazolamide in Acute Decompensated Heart Failure with Volume Overload. N Engl J Med. 2022 Sep 29;387(13):1185-1195. Epub 2022 Aug 27. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa2203094

100. Vasin A.A., Mironova O.I., Fomin V.V. Intravenous contrast induced acute kidney injury prevention with high doses of statins. Eurasian heart journal. 2022;(3):84-88. (In Russ.) https://doi.org/10.38109/2225-1685-2022-3-84-88

101. Mironova OI, Panferov AS. Anemia of chronic diseases: current state of the problem and perspectives. Terapevticheskii arkhiv 2023;94(12):1349-1354. (In Russ.) https://doi.org/10.26442/00403660.2022.12.201984

102. Mehran R, Aymong ED, Nikolsky E, Lasic Z, Iakovou I, Fahy M, Mintz GS, Lansky AJ, Moses JW, Stone GW, Leon MB, Dangas G. A simple risk score for prediction of contrast-induced nephropathy after percutaneous coronary intervention: development and initial validation. J Am Coll Cardiol. 2004 Oct 6;44(7):1393-9. PMID: 15464318. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jacc.2004.06.068

103. Kuznetsov VA, Mironova OI, Gritsanchuk AM, Fomin VV. Contrastassociated acute kidney injury after percutaneous coronary interventions in patients with acute coronary syndrome: a real-world study. Consilium Medicum 2022;24(10):713-717. (In Russ.) https://doi.org/10.26442/20751753.2022.10.201925

104. Mironova O.Iu. Contrast-induced nephropathy. Therapeutic Archive. 2013;85(6):90 95. (In Russ.)

105. Isaev GO, Mironova OI, Fomin VV. Assessment of the influence of different factors on the risk of the development of a new coronavirus infection in patients with contrast induced acute kidney injury. Terapevticheskii arkhiv 2021;93(6):667-671. (In Russ.) https://doi.org/10.26442/00403660.2021.06.200861

106. Vasin AA, Mironova OI, Fomin VV. Contrast-induced acute kidney injury after computed tomography with contrast media in patients with cardiovascular diseases. Consilium Medicum 2021;23(12):928- 930. (In Russ.) https://doi.org/10.26442/20751753.2021.12.201162

107. Vasin AA, Mironova OIu, Fomin VV. The atorvastatin effects on the prevention of contrast-induced acute kidney injury during computed tomography with contrast media. Terapevticheskii Arkhiv (Ter. Arkh.). 2022;94(9):1057–1061. (In Russ.) https://doi.org/10.26442/00403660.2022.09.201845

108. Chazova I.E., Kislyak O.A., Podzolkov V.I., Bragina A.E., Sivakova O.A., Solntseva T.D., Elfimova E.M., Valieva Z.S., Fomin V.V., Mironova O.I. Arterial hypertension and chronic kidney disease: consensus statement on patient management. Systemic Hypertension. 2023;20(1):5-19. (In Russ.) https://doi.org/10.38109/2075-082X-2023-1-5-19

109. Kidney Disease: Improving Global Outcomes (KDIGO) Acute Kidney Injury Work Group. KDIGO Clinical Practice Guideline for Acute Kidney Injury. Kidney International Supplements. 2012:2;8-12. https://doi.org/10.1038/kisup.2012.7

110. Shchelkova G.V., Danilov N.M., Erkenova A.M., Yarovoy S.Yu., Matchin Yu.G., Mironova O.I., Bobkova I.N., Shvetsov M.Yu., Kislyak O.A., Chazova I.E. Consensus on renovascular hypertension: diagnosis and treatment. Systemic Hypertension. 2023;20(2):5-20. (In Russ.) https://doi.org/10.38109/2075-082X-2023-2-5-20

111. Mironova OIu, Lakotka PG, Fomin VV. Hyperuricemia as a risk factor of contrast-induced acute kidney injury. Consilium Medicum. 2021;23(1):25-27. (In Russ.) https://doi.org/10.26442/20751753.2021.1.200572

112. Aksenova AV, Sivakova OA, Blinova NV, Danilov NM, Elfimova EM, Kisliak OA, Litvin AY, Oshchepkova EV, Fomin VV, Chikhladze NM, Shelkova GV, Chazova IE. Russian Medical Society for Arterial Hypertension expert consensus. Resistant hypertension: detection and management. Terapevticheskii arkhiv 2021;93(9):1018-1029. (In Russ.) https://doi.org/10.26442/00403660.2021.09.201007

113. Chazova I.E., Chikhladze N.M., Blinova N.V., Belaya Zh.E., Danilov N.M., Elfimova E.M., Litvin A.Yu., Rozhinskaya L.Ya., Sviridenko N.Yu., Shvetsov M.Yu., Azizov V.A., Grigorenko E.A., Mit’kovskaja N.P., Mustafaev I.I., Polupanov A.G., Sarybaev A.Sh., Hamidullaeva G.A. Eurasian clinical guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of secondary (symptomatic) forms of arterial hypertension (2022). Eurasian heart journal. 2023;(1):6-65. (In Russ.) https://doi.org/10.38109/2225-1685-2023-1-6-65

114. Blinova N.V., Trushina O.I., Kislyak O.A., Podzolkov V.I., Bragina A.E., Chazova I.E. Consensus on the management of patients with hyperuricemia and high cardiovascular risk: 2025. Systemic Hypertension. 2025;22(2):5-17. (In Russ.) https://doi.org/10.38109/2075-082X-2025-2-5-17

115. Kopylova Y.V., Poz Y.L., Strokov A.G., Poptsov V.N., Voronina O.V., Uhrenkov S.G. Prevention and treatment of acute kidney injury after cardiac surgery with cardiopulmonary bypass and heart transplantation. Russian Journal of Transplantology and Artificial Organs. 2010;12(2):92-99. (In Russ.) https://doi.org/10.15825/1995-1191-2010-2-92-99

116. Cruz D, Bobek I, Lentini P, Soni S, Chionh CY, Ronco C. Machines for continuous renal replacement therapy. Semin Dial. 2009 MarApr;22(2):123-32. PMID: 19426414. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1525-139X.2008.00544.x

117. Macedo E, Mehta RL. Continuous Dialysis Therapies: Core Curriculum 2016. Am J Kidney Dis. 2016 Oct;68(4):645-657. Epub 2016 May 28. PMID: 27241853. https://doi.org/10.1053/j.ajkd.2016.03.427

118.